Research Steps

Steps in conducting research

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.^[7] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:^[8]

• Identification of research problem
• Literature review
• Specifying the purpose of research
• Determine specific research questions
• Specification of a Conceptual framework - Usually a set of hypotheses ^[9]
• Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
• Data collection
• Analyzing and interpreting the data
• Reporting and evaluating research
• Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

The steps generally represent the overall process, however they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.^[10] Most research begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.^[11] The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as Empirical research. The results of the data analysis in confirming or failing to reject the Null hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research. However, some researchers advocate for the flip approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification research problem that emerging in the findings and literature review introducing the findings. The flip approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings fully emerged and interpreted.
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in the results."^[12]
Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrase in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!"^[13]

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Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms - bacteria, protozoal parasites, viruses and fungi. These organisms can only be seen under the microscope but despite their size these micro-organisms, or microbes for short, have a massive impact on our lives. It has been estimated that there are 5X1030 or 5 million trillion, trillion, microbial cells on Earth. The total amount of carbon in these cells is equivalent to that of all of the plants on the planet! They collectively constitute the largest mass of living material on earth and play a critical role in shaping the environment that we live in. Humans, plants and animals are intimately tied to the activities of microbes which recycle key nutrients and degrade organic matter. Some microbes, however, are pathogenic.

Microbiology and the Evolution of Life on Earth

Microbes have existed on Earth for billions of years and were here long before plant and animal life began. For the majority of its 4.5 billion year history, life on Earth was exclusively microbial. Microbial cells first appeared between 3.8 and 3.9 billion years ago. The fossilised remains of these early bacteria can be detected in stromatolites - rock-like build ups of microbial mats and trapped sediment. When the Earth first formed there was no oxygen present and only bacteria which could grow without oxygen could thrive. Eventually a group of bacteria called cyanobacteria evolved which were able to photosynthesise, thus generating oxygen. At this point the long process of oxygenating the world began, starting the slow, gradual process of the evolution of aerobic forms of life, including animals and plants.

Microbes as Guardians of the Earth

Microbes act as guardians of our planet ensuring that key minerals, such as carbon and nitrogen, are constantly recycled. Even though the Earth is now populated with green plants, microbes still play a crucial role in oxygenating the atmosphere and collectively they carry out more photosynthesis than plants. Microbes degrade dead organic matter, converting the organic carbon in their bodies back into carbon dioxide.
Microbes also play a key role in the nitrogen cycle. Bacteria in the soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates in the soil. Nitrates are an essential plant nutrient – they need the nitrogen for proteins - and the plants themselves provide food for live stock and other animals. The nitrogen locked in plant and animal proteins is then degraded into nitrates by microbes and eventually converted back into nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria. Compost heaps are a fantastic example of how effectively microbes breakdown organic matter. The mixture of garden weed, grass clippings and mouldy fruit and veg is decomposed rapidly by fungi and bacteria into carbon dioxide and plant compost containing nourishing nitrates and nitrites. Without the recycling power of microbes dead vegetation, carcasses and food waste would start piling up around us! In the UK 6.7 million tonnes of food waste is thrown away every year. Imagine what would happen to the Earth if this waste just sat there and wasn’t degraded…

The Birth of Microbiology

It wasn’t until the 17th century, when the microscope was invented by Robert Hooke, that the existence of microbes was even suspected. Hooke’s microscope, however, could only achieve magnifications of 20-30 times - not powerful enough to see bacteria. Around 1668 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, an amateur microscope builder, improved microscope design so that he was able to make a microscope capable of magnifications of up to 200 times. Van Leeuwenhoek started examining things like pond water, tooth scrapings and then almost anything he could lay his hands on! In 1683 he described, in a letter to the Royal Society, that he had seen "an unbelievably great company of living animalcules, swimming more nimbly that I had ever seen up to this time” when he had used his microscope to look at the tooth scraping from an elderly man, who had never cleaned his teeth! The animacules were bacteria.

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OBJECT OF INVENTION Object of invention should clearly reflect the advantages of the invention. It should describe the solution of the existing technical problem associated with the existing field of art. Each and every object and advantages of the invention should be described in a separate sentence. Basically, this portion is a comparative analysis of the inventive technology over the existing one.

STATEMENT OF INVENTION Statement of invention describes the exact novel features of the invention. It should clearly reflect the inventive feature of the invention over the existing one. This part is very useful to declare inventiveness of the invention and also relates exactly to the independent claims and to complement the omnibus claim in situations of infringement proceedings.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION Summary of invention describes a broad overview of the invention and, thus, provide a structure for understanding the Detailed Description and Claim sections of the specification. The summary of the invention describes the invention overall, e.g., the purpose of the invention, problems solved, advantages offered, and so forth.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS The brief description of drawings includes a written description of the invention that explains how to make and use it. It should point the reference numerals used in the drawings and should be specific. The details should be sufficient enough for a person skilled in the art to understand and perform the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The detailed description describes in detail what the invention is and how it is made and used. Examples showing how the invention works in a particular application may or may not be present. It should reflect the complete picture of the invention and should be sufficient for a person skilled in the art to perform the invention by developing necessary technical know‐how.

CLAIMS Claims are the essence of a patent. The claims define the invention which the inventor holds as his exclusive property and has the right to exclude others from making, using and selling. The claims specify the scope of ownership in a piece of property, i.e. Intellectual Property. These claims are of paramount importance in both

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